Introduction
The 1972 election is typically remembered as the election that put Nixon in the White House as well as for the Watergate Scandal. The road to the White House that year would put Nixon in a position that would ultimately lead to the resignation of his vice-president Spiro Agnew, and the first and only invocation of the 25th amendment when he chose Gerald Ford as his new vice president. The hits kept coming for the Nixon administration when after being investigated and new evidence came to light and he resigned in August of 1974. Nixon is not the only important figure during the 1972 election, but his legacy overshadows many of the other events that took place including the first African American woman to run in the primaries, the attempted assassination of a candidate and scandal surrounding George McGovern, the winner and democratic candidate for president and his original vice-presidential pick Thomas Eagleton. This paper will focus on the specifics of the 1972 democratic primaries and specifically on Shirley Chisholm, George Wallace, George McGovern, Edward Muskie and Hubert Humphrey with a focus on Shirley Chisholm’s campaign and the lasting legacy that she left for women and women of color and the future of American politics.
Overview of the Major Candidates
The
1972 Democratic primaries set the stage for the first the first African
American to run for the highest office in the United States, the Presidency.
Shirley Chisholm, the first African American woman to be elected to Congress,
threw her hat in the ring for the Presidential nomination, alongside four men
including, George McGovern, Hubert Humphrey, George Wallace and Edmund Muskie.
At the Democratic National Convention, held in Miami Beach, the party chose
George McGovern and running mate, Thomas Eagleton. Despite losing the
nomination, Shirley Chisholm paved the way for future African Americans and
women to continue to vie for the White House.
Shirley Chisholm had been elected to Congress in 1968 and
would go on to serve seven terms as the Congresswoman from New York’s 12th
district. She would become the first African American candidate, as well as the
first woman to run for the Democratic Party’s presidential nomination. Chisholm
joined the Congressional Black Caucus in 1971, she was one of the founding
members of the Caucus, and she would also help to found and join the National
Women’s Political Caucus in that same year. 1971 was a big year for Chisholm,
on top of helping to begin the National Women’s Political Caucus and the
Congressional Black Caucus, she also began to explore the idea of running for
president. On January 25th, 1972 Chisholm formally announced her
candidacy.[1] She had begun her career
as an educator and teacher. From 1953 until 1964 she held positions as a day
care director and as an educational consultant for the Division of Day Care in
New York. It was during this time that she became interested in politics,
because every day she saw the ins and outs of child welfare, as well as the
need for early childhood education. She was elected to the State legislature in
1965. She remained a member of the New York State Assembly until her run for
the United States Congress.
To
many, Chisholm was just a symbolic political figure, rather than a serious
contender. She struggled throughout the
campaign, which was underfunded. During the campaign, she is said to have only
spent around $300,000 total.[2] Surprisingly, Chisholm
received very little in the way of support from many of the black males in the
democratic party. Many people saw her as a feminist on a crusade. She often
wrote about sexism and racism, and in 1982, reflecting on her presidential bid
she stated, "I've always met more discrimination being a woman than being
black. When I ran for the Congress, when I ran for president, I met more discrimination
as a woman than for being black. Men are men."[3] Despite facing
discrimination, she stuck with it through the Democratic National Convention.
Throughout her campaign, there were many issues that she
faced. Chisholm had to contend with discrimination on the basis of sex and
race, an underfunded campaign and security issues. During the 1972 primaries,
no less than three confirmed threats were made on her life. She had a
bodyguard, Conrad Chisholm, until the United States Secret Service became her
protection in May of 1972. Conrad Chisholm was Shirley’s husband from 1949
until 1977.
Chisholm continued to write during the primaries and
several other interesting things happened during her campaign, including being
approached by German filmmaker, Peter Lilienthal, who shot a documentary. The
film was entitled, Shirley Chisholm for
President. It was a bit strange, that the film was made for a German Television
channel. It was for a United States candidate and the US primaries, and the
implications of filming it for German television, especially considering that
this was during the height of the Cold War, in a Germany divided between the
West and the East, were not ever entirely explained. Chisholm won only one
primary in the state of New Jersey, but she remained in the contest until the
Democratic National Convention in July.
George
Wallace, yet another of the men vying for the democratic nomination, was the
governor of Alabama during the primaries. He was also recovering from an
assassination attempt during most of the month of June 1972. Wallace had been
elected governor and served his first term from 1963 to 1967, when his wife
Lurleen Wallace became governor of Alabama, as a law prevented him from earning
a consecutive term. He served as First Gentleman of Alabama from January of
1967 to May of 1968. He was back in the governorship by 1971 and served until
1979, he was again reelected and served from 1983 to 1987. On May 15, 1972
George Wallace was shot five times by Arthur Bremer on the campaign trail. The
New York Times reported on the shooting and what happened when the news reached
Alabama. “In Huntsville, Ala., Dr. John L. Cashin Jr., leader of the
predominantly black National Democratic Party of Alabama, said in a statement:
“The shooting of George Wallace is not only an outrageous atrocity, it will
give George Wallace the mantle of aggrieved respectability that he needs in his
quest for ultimate power. I condemn the action of the would‐be
assassin and those who sympathize with his deed as both misguided and
unspeakably foolish as well as politically unenlightened.”[4]
Cashin was an African American who had run unsuccessfully for Governor against
Wallace. His public condemnation of the assassination attempt seemed surprising
for some, because Wallace was pro-segregation. The shooting left Wallace
paralyzed from the waist down for the rest of his life. When Bremer published
his account of the attempt in his book, An Assassin’s Diary, he stated that his
motivation was a desire for fame, rather than for any political ideology. This
was important, because Wallace had a bit of a negative public image in some
circles. He was pro-segregation, and many wondered if Bremer had been
politically motivated, but upon the release of his diary, they found that he
had plotted to assassinate Nixon and was unable to go through with it, and he
shot Wallace for fame and glory.[5]
Wallace was not eliminated until the Democratic National Convention in July.
Edmund
Muskie, a senator from Maine, had a public image already. He had run for the vice-presidential
candidacy alongside fellow hopeful Hubert Humphrey in the 1968 election. The
election that year went to Nixon. The Humphrey-Muskie ticket lost by a narrow
margin, with a difference of only 0.7 percent of the vote. George Wallace, who
had run on a third-party ticket that year also took several states in that
election. Muskie’s 1972 primary campaign consisted of speeches, nearly day
after day, and this began to bore the voting base. When Ohio voters went to the
polls to vote in the primaries for the democratic candidate, they were shaken.
Edward Muskie had withdrawn from the election only days before the primary,
leaving many Ohio voters unsure of what to do. The governor of Ohio, John
Gilligan, had endorsed Muskie as his choice and was surprised that Muskie
withdrew. The New York Times reported on the events in Ohio stating that, “A
funny thing happened on the way to Tuesday's Ohio Democratic Presidential
primary election. Senator Edmund S. Muskie of Maine, the choice of Gov. John J.
Gilligan and most of the state's other prominent Democrats, dropped out of the
active campaign, Which left Ohio, known as the “Mother of Presidents” for the
one adopted and seven native sons who have succeeded in the White House,
fumbling in its unfamiliar role as midwife. Politics are not a sometime thing
in this state of more than 10.6 million people, the sixth largest in the
nation, at least not in the minds of the ardent practitioners who abound here.”[6]
Muskie had withdrawn on April 28th and many found it odd that Muskie
had withdrawn, and this may have helped to funnel more votes to George McGovern.
Hubert
Humphrey was the former vice president, former presidential candidate in the
1968 election and a former United States Senator. He ran on the ticket in 1968
alongside Edmund Muskie, who was his vice-presidential choice and running mate.
The 1972 democratic primaries now put them at odds. Humphrey had the political
chops that many other candidates did not. He served in the Senate from 1949
until 1964. During that time, he tried, unsuccessfully to gain the nomination
as the democratic president and vice-presidential candidate. On January 20,
1965 he took office as the Vice President of the United States alongside Lyndon
B. Johnson. Humphrey was filling a vacancy that had lasted for fourteen months
when Johnson assumed the presidency after the assignation of John F. Kennedy in
November of 1963. The New York Times reported that he had muffed up his lines
during the swearing in ceremony. “…he had some difficulty in slowly repeating
the oath, line by line, after Speaker McCormack.”[7]
Despite his goof during his swearing in, he still made sure to fulfill his
duty. He had received the reputation as somewhat of an “abrasive do-gooder,”
but with his new role, he now gained a more conservative image. He defended
American participation in Vietnam, as vice president he served as the chairman
of the National Advisory Council of the Peace Corps, he was the coordinator of
the antipoverty program, and chairman of the Civil Rights Council, and he
worked with Congress to pass the Voting Rights Act and Medicare.[8]
When he announced his campaign on January 10, 1972, people were hardly
surprised and he made it all the way to the Democratic National Convention in
July.
George
McGovern was the first of the democratic candidates to announce his run. He
announced it on January 18, 1971. He had served as a United States Representative,
Senator and a Director of Food for Peace which provided food assistance around
the world. McGovern was the epitome of a modern liberal during his time. He
became well known for his growing dislike for the war in Vietnam and focused on
issues that helped the American people. He championed food, nutrition, hunger
and agricultural initiatives. He wanted to prioritize domestic science and
technology programs. “The McGovern group reiterates that the policy in essence
is to "redirect scientific priorities from military to civilian goals,
expand Federal research and development to meet a broad range of human needs,
to use science and technology to create new domestic programs and industries, .
. . In short science would be allowed to work for mankind as never
before." To aid in the transition, McGovern has promised an immediate
investment of $10 billion to create new peacetime jobs for individuals whose
jobs disappear as a result of defense cuts.”[9]
McGovern became
the democratic nominee at the 1972 convention. It was there that he announced
his running mate would be Thomas Eagleton. McGovern was unaware of Eagleton’s history
of depression, which was later found to be bipolar II disorder. He had
undergone shock therapy during past hospitalizations. McGovern initially agreed
to support his vice-presidential running mate, but after a panel of doctors was
convened, he was advised that they did not believe that Eagleton would be able
to serve as president, should the situation arise.[10]
It has been speculated that this lack of support and picking a new running mate
in Sargent Shriver, may have lost McGovern the general election in the long
run.
Setting the Stage
The New York Times
released an article in January of 1971 entitled “Here We Go Again!” The article
was about the upcoming 1972 election and analyzed the information from the 1970
election. “Both sides have now analyzed the 1970 election returns very
carefully and are beginning to deal with the realities of the future:
inflation, unemployment, war, the arms race and the young. They are not talking
so much now about the old arguments between Republicans and Democrats, black
and white, young and old, left and right, Eastern “effetes” and the “silent
majority,” but looking to the new political alignments of 1972.”[11]
On
March 23, 1971, Congress passed the 26th amendment to the
Constitution. It was ratified on July 1, 1971. Amendment XXVI states that, “The
right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older,
to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on
account of age, and in section 2, The Congress shall have power to enforce this
article by appropriate legislation.”[12]
This meant that there would be an additional 11.5 million Americans aged 18 to
21. The candidates now had to pander to a younger voting base during a war that
many young American’s were not happy about. Several of the candidates,
including Humphrey had supported the war and this would not have been something
young voters were excited about.
Shirley Chisholm’s Campaign
"I will
fight until I can't fight anymore. I don't mind the challenge," Shirley
Chisholm boldly declared after her historic victory in 1968 over James Farmer,
former head of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE).”[13]
This was only the beginning for Chisholm and four short years later, she
announced that she would be seeking the democratic nomination for the
presidency when she announced on January 25, 1972. Many men were not prepared
for a woman, let alone an African American woman to be stepping into the
limelight, and certainly not as a presidential candidate. Chisholm, on the other
hand, felt that sexism and not her race would be the most difficult issue for
her to overcome. She even believed that her African American male counterparts
would have issues with it as well. “For some black men, Chisholm's
assertiveness brought to mind the negative stereotypes of overbearing black
populated the pages of prevalent "Culture of Poverty" social
scientific literature.”[14]
This was also made fairly evident in an article released by The New York Times
the day after she announced her candidacy. The front page read, “Representative
Shirley Chisholm announced her candidacy yesterday for the Democratic
Presidential nomination — the first black woman to seek a major‐party
Presidential nomination. The Brooklyn Democrat picked an unusual setting to announce
her candidacy —Bedford‐Stuyvesant parochial school auditorium—declaring that
she sought “to repudiate the ridiculous notion that the American people will
not vote for a qualified candidate simply, because he is not white or because
she is not a male.” The article went on to state that, “…as of now, she did not
appear to have overwhelming support among women, blacks or youths, although she
was obviously appealing to all three groups.”[15]
Many candidates before Chisholm had chosen to announce their candidacy in
speeches over the radio, television broadcasts and in newspapers. When they
announced in person, it was from locations that were personal to them. Chisholm
opted to announce in a school, likely because she had a background in
education.
During
the entirety of her campaign, she is reported to have only spent $300,000. One
of her campaign posters included the wording, “Bring U.S together, Vote
Chisholm 1972, Unbought and Unbossed.”[16]
In 2016, an article was released that discussed some of her campaign details
and shed further light on the posters, which were targeted at college students,
who now had the right to vote and Chisholm had the foresight to base her
campaign on getting the vote of the people in the 18 to 21 range. “Robert
Gottlieb was first an intern in Chisholm’s Congressional office and later hired
as the student coordinator for her presidential campaign, which would come to
rely heavily on the support of college students. “She was unafraid of anybody,”
says Gottlieb. “Her slogan was 'unbought and unbossed.' She was really
unbossed.”[17]
Landers went on to write further about Gottlieb, focusing on the reason that he
signed on to the campaign in the first place, which itself is a testament to
Shirley Chisholm. “So, I’m 21 years old. I'm a senior in college. I’m raring to
go,” says Gottlieb, who is now an attorney in New York City. “And my first trip
was to North Carolina to go to some colleges to try to organize students. And I
had to wait until we received the bumper stickers and brochures that we could
hand out. Coming from the printer they were in boxes. . . . but on the
outside of the box you had one bumper sticker. On the other was one brochure,
‘Chisholm for President.’ I took a plane to Raleigh, North Carolina. And I go
to pick up my bags and the brochures and bumper stickers from the luggage
carousel. And scrawled all over it was ‘go home n*****.’ That's how the
campaign began.”[18]
Chisholm embraced her feminism rather than viewing it as a weakness. It was important to her that she was a fierce woman, and she had the background in work and politics to back it up. Landers talks about the campaign buttons and posters further. He describes the feminist quality to them and notes that Chisholm refused to make apologies for who she was. “Her posters and buttons left no doubt about who she was. One badge showed her face surrounded by the circle of an astrological Venus symbol. She didn't downplay her feminism—she flaunted it. The very idea of a black woman in politics who made no apologies made her something of a punch line.” [19] To Chisholm the things that people thought made her look weak, were what she embraced. She embraced the feminist movement, and her meager campaign funds purchased posters, badges, pins, bumper stickers and more to show that she embraced being a black American woman, and she wouldn’t let that hold her back. There were feminists who did not support her though, even though you would think that women and other minorities would have been her biggest support, but she was never able to consolidate that support she needed. “Feminists were split over her candidacy,” recalls Gottlieb. “Gloria Steinem, who you would expect to have supported her, supported McGovern instead. That was significant and it hurt on a personal level quite a bit…”[20] Despite being without the total support of women, African American men, significant endorsements and having low campaign funds, Chisholm managed to win one of the democratic primaries in the state of New Jersey.
The Democratic National Convention and Aftermath
There were many reporters and
members of the press present in Miami Beach, Florida for the 1972 Democratic
National Convention. The delegates were coming together to finally decide who
would be their candidate for President of the United States, and it was the
time for final speeches, last ditch efforts and finalization of a candidate for
President and Vice President for the 1972 general election. The primaries were
at an end, and as the week began, it became obvious that there was a front
runner for the nomination, George McGovern. The other leading contenders vying
for the nomination wanted to stop him, and a movement at the convention was
begun, to “Stop McGovern.”
“Senator Hubert H. Humphrey or Minnesota released all of
his black delegates today to allow them to cast symbolic first‐ballot
votes at the Democratic National Convention here for Representative
Shirley Chisholm of Brooklyn. Mr. Humphrey has 93 black delegates and 97 black
alternates, but it could not be learned tonight how many of his black delegates
planned to vote for Mrs. Chisholm on the first ballot.”[21]
There was a lot of backlash at this initial move. The black delegates that
supported McGovern were irritated that this seemed like a ploy to prevent him
from being the nominee and outraged at the idea that Humphrey had to “release”
the black delegates to vote. The Reverend Jesse L. Jackson even accused
Humphrey of engaging in “slick racism.”[22]
On the morning of Sunday July 16, 1972 an article was released on the front page of The New York Times. “Black delegates, leaders and visitors to the Democratic National Convention left here today with mixed feelings of “frustration, bitterness and hope. Almost to a person, they felt that the quest for black unity had been a failure, with more disharmony displayed than at any time since the plea for unity went out over a year ago. Smoldering resentment against the candidacy of Representative Shirley Chisholm broke into open warfare between the Brooklyn Representative and other black leaders. Many blacks felt that. Mrs. Chisholm had jumped the gun in announcing her candidacy before leaders could select such a candidate. They never forgave her, and she never ceased rubbing the point in.”[23] On July 14, 1972, the text of McGovern’s address accepting the nomination was released. In it he stated, “I treasure this nomination especially because it comes after vigorous competition with the ablest men and women our party can offer. My old and treasured friend and neighbor, Hubert Humphrey; that gracious and good man from Maine, Ed Muskie; a tough fighter for his beliefs, Scoop Jackson; a brave and spirited woman, Shirley Chisholm…”[24] Even in his address accepting the nomination, he still managed to put Shirley Chisholm down, with a back handed compliment. He described his fellow male candidates as fighters, treasured friends, gracious and good people and he referred to Chisholm as a “brave and spirited woman.” This may have seemed like a friendly way to state her importance, but to many, they saw right through the speech and decided he had chosen those words to put her down and write her attempt at the nomination off as ridiculous and discourage future attempts. Whether or not that was his intent, it came across that way for many women and many have speculated, to Chisholm as well. It may not have been a victory for Chisholm, but she inspired a future generation, many of which she was around to see take steps for women and women of color in the United States government.
Conclusion
The
Chisholm campaign may have been underfunded and lacking in support, but Shirley
Chisholm helped to pave the way for future female politicians and African
Americans. Since her election to congress in 1968, there have been forty-one
elections that put African American women into the congressional seats of the
House of Representatives. By 1973, she was joined by three other African
American women in Congress. Since 1968 there have been two African American
female United States Senators as well. Chisholm paved the way for women of
color in the American government, and despite a loss of the 1972 presidential
nomination, this has been a lasting legacy that she could be proud of.
It can perhaps be best summed up in the portion of a speech given by Percy Sutton when they announced her nomination at the convention in 1972. Nearly fifty years later, the words still ring true. “I stand to present to you the Presidential candidacy of a very unique individual – an individual who by her very presence, action and conduct suggests change. An individual who by her action hastened the opening of the doors of the political process and the corridors of power so that Blacks, browns, women, young people – and old people – indeed, all Americans – might begin to share meaningful input into the halls of power that control our lives. The candidacy of this courageous individual has served as a catalyst to bring together the forces of dissatisfied women, struggling minorities, the poor and the young, who saw and see in her candidacy, new hope for, and from, the American political system. All Americans are indebted to this tiny lady whose tireless efforts to inject new life-blood into an ailing and unresponsive political system are to be crowned by the submission of her name to you tonight.”[25]
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[1] Freeman, Jo. Shirley Chisholm's 1972 Presidential
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(accessed January 25, 2019).
[2] Freeman, 2005.
[3] Barron, James. "Shirley Chisholm,
'Unbossed'Pioneer in Congress, Is Dead at 80." New York Times,
January 3, 2005.
[4] Nordheimer, Jon. "Prayers and Tears in Alabama
Capital." The New York Times, May 16, 1972: 35.
[5] Lemay, Arthur Bremer and Harding. An Assassin's Diary. New York: Harper's Magazine Press, 1973.
[6] Kneeland, Douglas E. "Muskie's Pullout Jolts Ohio
Politicians." The New York Times, May 1, 1972: 28.
[7] Kenworthy, E.W. "HUMPHREY SWORN AS VICE PRESIDENT." The New York Times, January 21, 1965: 18.
[8] The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Hubert Humphrey - Vice President of the United States . January 9, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hubert-Humphrey (accessed February 25, 2019)
[9] Society for
Science & the Public. “McGovern’s Position Papers on Science.” Science News, 1972: 278.
[10] Giglio, James N. "The Eagleton Affair: Thomas
Eagleton, George McGovern, and the 1972 Vice Presidential Nomination." Presidential
Studies Quarterly, 2009: 647-676.
[11] Reston, James. “Here We Go Again!” The New York Times, January 8, 1971: 31.
[12] States, Congress of the United. The Constitution:
Amendments 11-27. October 6, 2016.
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2019).
[13] Gallagher, Julie. “Waging “The Good Fight”: The Political Career of Shirley Chisholm, 1953-1982.” The Journal of African American History, 2007: 392-416.
[14] Brown, Tammy L. “A New Era in American Politics”: Shirley Chisholm and the Discourse of Identity.” Callaloo, 2008: 1013-1025.
[15] Lynn, Frank. “New Hat in Ring: Mrs. Chisholm’s” The New York Times, January 26, 1972:1.
[16] Collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture. Shirley Chisholm For President. 1972. https://nmaahc.si.edu/shirley-chisholm-president (accessed February 25, 2019).
[17] Landers, Jackson. "“Unbought And Unbossed:” When a Black Woman Ran for the White House." Smithsonian Mag. April 25, 2016. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/unbought-and-unbossed-when-black-woman-ran-for-the-white-house-180958699/ (accessed February 23, 2019).
[18] Landers, 2016
[19] Landers, 2016.
[20] Landers, 2016.
[21] Delaney, Paul. “Humphrey Blacks to Vote for Mrs. Chisholm First.” The New York Times, July 11, 1972:1.
[22] Delaney, 1972.
[23] Delaney, Paul. “Blacks are Divided on the Convention.” The New York Times, July 16, 1972: 42.
[24] McGovern, George.
“Text Address by McGovern Accepting the Democratic Presidential Nomination.”
The New York Times, July 14, 1972: 11.
[25] Sutton, Percy. "In Nomination for the Presidency
the Name of Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm." The Massachusetts Review,
July 1972: 703-707.
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